Behavioral psychology which is also called behaviorism, it is basically a theory of learning which is based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through some conditions. And Conditioning occurs through interaction with environment. According to this psychology of behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states.
The 2 major types of conditioning:
- Classical conditioning: It is a study or you can say technique which is used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired or attached with a response. Afterwards, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Finally, the previously neutral stimulus comes to call out the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. Then the two elements are known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.
- Operant conditioning : (it is also known as instrumental conditioning) is a method through which a person learns something by giving him/her rewards or punishments. By operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a distinction for that behavior.
Genetic Foundations
- Phenotypes- observable characteristics
- Genotypes- genetic information that determines our characteristics
- Chromosomes- within the nucleus of the cell are rodlike structures that store and transmit genetic information. Chromosomes come in 23 matching pairs (except sex chromosomes, which are X and Y)
- DNA- chemical substances that make up chromosomes- the double helix structure
- Genes- a segment of DNA on the chromosome. We share 98% of our DNA with chimps- so that little extra bit is responsible for our upright gait and language and cognitive abilities.
- Karyotype is a photograph of human chromosomes.
- Mitosis is the process of duplication of the normal cells, producing exact copies.
The Sex Cells
- Gametes are the sex cell, sperm and ovum. Each contains 23 chromosomes, so that when they combine to form a new person, the fertilized egg will have 23 pairs of chromosomes.
- Meiosis is the process of forming gametes with 23 chromosomes.
- Zygote is produced by sperm and ovum uniting in fertilization.
- Autosomes are matching pairs of chromosomes- 22 pairs.
- Sex chromosomes are the 23rd pair, either XX for a female or XY for a male.
Multiple births relates to family history of twins, older maternal age, normal build women and later births or use of fertility drugs.
- Fraternal/ dizygotic twins are most common twin, produced by fertilization of 2 ova by 2 sperm. These twins are no more alike than any siblings.
- Identical/ monozygotic twins occur when a fertilized zygote separates into 2 clusters of cells that become 2 individuals. 3/ 1,000 births.
Genetic inheritance
- Homozygous inheritance results when a pair of autosomes match, so the child reflects the similar gene characteristic.
- Heterozygous inheritance occurs when the genes for a trait are not the same- so the relationship between the 2 determines which trait will be displayed.
- Dominant-recessive inheritance determines what traits are displayed. The dominant gene will be displayed, while the recessive trait will go underground, held in the genetic matrix.
- Carriers have a recessive gene that can be passed to a child and be displayed in a later generation.
- Phenyketonuria is a defect in processing proteins and is the product of recessive genes. Because all children are tested for PKU disease and the disease can be controlled by a low protein diet, these children can escape brain damage and mental retardation.
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- Huntington disease (nervous system degeneration) is carried on a dominant gene and most diseases like that are so serious that the child doesn’t live to pass the disease on to later generations. Huntingtons, however doesn’t display until age 35+, so many people do reproduce, not knowing their genetic disorder til too late.
- Codominance occurs when both genes influence a characteristic.
- Sickle cell trait is present in many African Americans, but Sickle cell anemia occurs when the child inherits 2 recessive genes. Because the red blood cells are deformed, they clog the flow of blood and the sufferer has attacks of pain, swelling and tissue damage. Most die in the first 20 years.
- Dominant and recessive characteristics: dark hair dominates blond hair; dimples dominate over no dimples, Type A blood dominates Type O blood, Rh-positive blood dominates Rh-negative blood.
- Dominant and recessive diseases
- Recessive diseases
- Cystic fibrosis
- PKU disease
- Sickle cell anemia
- Tay-Sachs disease
- Dominant diseases
- Huntington disease
- Marfan syndrome
- X-linked diseases
- Duchenne muscular dystrophy
- Hemophilia
- Diabetes insipidus
- X-linked inheritance affects males more often since they don’t have a matching X chromosome to block recessive inheritance on the X chromosome. Hemophilia mostly occurs in boys. Other disabilities afflict boys more often: miscarriage, infant death, birth defects, learning disabilities, mental retardation.
- Genetic imprinting – genes are imprinted, chemically marked so that one member of the pair is activated, regardless of its makeup. Diabetes is more often passed from the father. Asthma is more often passed from mothers. Fragile X syndrome results in moderate mental retardation, and autism yet it is expressed only when passed from the mother.
- Mutation is a sudden, permanent change in DNA. Radiation exposure results in mutation.
- Polygenic inheritance occurs when many genes determine the characteristic.
Chromosomal Abnormalities generally occur during defects in meiosis when the sex cells are being formed. A chromosome pair won’t separate completely, etc.
- Down syndrome is the most common chromosomal disorder, 1/ 800 births. Symptoms are mental retardation, memory, speech problems, slow motor development. There are distinct physical features in the face, often cataracts, heart and intestinal defects. With adequate stimulation and therapy, they can develop more normally. Risk increases with age of mother (1/30 at age 45)
- Abnormalities of the sex chromosomes- when they are severe, most pregnancies spontaneously abort in miscarriage.
- XYY syndrome- males with specific learning disabilities.
- XXX syndrome- girls with reading and vocabulary difficulties.
- Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) boys with physical disabilities.
- Turner syndrome (XO) girls who are infertile, without female organs, and disabilities in spatial relationships.
Reproductive choices
- Genetic counseling can assess a couple’s chances of producing a child with a hereditary disorder. This is essential if either person has a family history of disease or disorder. They can detect if a parent is a carrier of a disease.
- Prenatal diagnostic methods permit detection of problems before birth, so the parents can make a decision about carrying baby to term.
- Amniocentesis- testing a sample of fluid in the uterus to examine fetal cells for defects. 11 – 14 weeks after conception.
- Chorionic villus sampling retrieving tissue from the membrane surrounding the fetus to examine cells. Can be done at 6 – 8 weeks. Risks of miscarriage and limb deformities.
- Fetoscopy - a scope with light is inserted to visually inspect the fetus for gross abnormalities. 15 – 18 weeks. Some risk of miscarriage.
- Ultrasound- reflection of sound waves creates a picture of fetus on a screen.
- Maternal blood analysis can be done by 2nd month of pregnancy, when levels of alpha-fetoprotein may indicate some problems, genetic defects.
- Preimplantation genetic diagnosis- removing a cell or 2 from a zygote that is prepared to be implanted in the mother after in vitro fertilization.
- Genetic engineering is developing in order to correct hereditary defects. Genes have been identified by the Human Genome Project that link to severe diseases such as cystic fibrosis, Huntington disease, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, etc. Gene therapy occurs when healthy genes are put into the defective cells to correct an abnormality.
- Social/ moral issues of reproductive technologies
- Donor insemination- using sperm from an anonymous donor when the husband has problems with fertility.
- In vitro fertilization- removing the mother’s ova, fertilizing them in a dish of nutrients and implanting the zygote. Sex sorting can be done to ensure a girl or boy- particularly important if parents carry an X-linked disease.
- Surrogate mothers are used when a woman can’t carry a pregnancy herself. The surrogate carries the implanted zygote to term and is paid a fee. Sometimes family members offer to be surrogates.
- Cloning is only known to be successful in some animals, but there is reason to believe some scientists are working toward cloning humans- possibly to harvest parts. Very controversial.
- Genetic testing is suggested for people holding high risks for genetic diseases. There are fears that general testing could result in discrimination against people who may have genes for cancer, heart disease, etc.
- Adoption has become more popular as young adults begin thinking about having babies later and may have problems conceiving. More young women are keeping their own babies, so the pool of healthy adoptees is shrinking. As a result many babies are being adopted from other countries. Adopted children do have more learning and emotional difficulties than other children, particularly if they are adopted after infancy. In general, most adoptees develop normally and are well adjusted as adults.
Heredity and environment affect one another
- Heritability estimates measure the extent that traits are inherited genetically.
- Kinship studies compare characteristics of family members. Twins are compared on certain traits, parents and children, parents and adoptees.
- Concordance rates are the percentage of instances when the 2nd twin shows a trait when it is present in one twin. Range is 0 to 100%- 100% means a trait is present 100% of the time in the 2nd twin when found in one twin. Intelligence has .50 heritability in twins. Genetics explains half the variation in intelligence. Personality traits show less heritability than intelligence. Schizophrenia has a 50% concordance rate in identical twins, 18% for fraternal twins (still much higher than in the general population) Depression is 69% in identical twins, 25% in fraternal twins. Heritability estimates can be misapplied and used to discriminate against groups. This was the justification for the Holocaust in Germany – to rid the society of poor genetic specimens- except the groups deemed undesirable extended way beyond Jews to blacks, those with mental defects, gays, etc. The fact is that environment has a great influence on what characteristics are displayed and how disabilities are overcome.
- Reaction range is your unique response to the environment. So your potential can be maximized or inhibited depending on stimulation in the environment.
- Canalization is the tendency of heredity to restrict the development of a characteristic to a few outcomes. Strongly canalized behaviors are very genetically based and not subject to much environmental impact.
- Genetic-environmental correlation – our genes influence the environments we are exposed to.
- Passive correlation is when the child has no control over the environment. Parents construct a certain environment into which the child comes and adapts.
- Evocative correlation is when the child evokes responses based on his/her own heredity. An active baby induces others to pay attention and respond to him. An irritable baby induces impatience in caretakers.
- Active correlation is more common at older ages as children choose activities and friends to fit their nature.
- Niche-picking is the active choice of environments that fit us. This may be why identical twins separated at birth, when reunited find they share many preferences.
- Environmental influences on gene expression- the process of influence is bi-directional.
- Epigenesis means the development resulting from ongoing bidirectional exchanges between heredity and environment. All relationships challenge us to develop out of our comfort zone. We learn who we are as we interact in the larger world.
- Tags: autosomes, Biological And Environmental Foundations, biological foundations, dna, Dominant and recessive diseases, genes, genetic imprinting, genetical inheriotance, huntington disease, karyotype, meoisis, mitosis, multiple birth, psychology articles, sex cells, sickle cell anemia
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DRIVE:
- Motivational state or drive – an internal condition, which can change over time, that orients an individual to a specific set of goals (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex, curiosity)..
NEAL EDGER MILLER:
Neal E. Miller was born in Wisconsin on August 3, 1909.He received a B.S. degree from the University of Washington (1931),M.S. from Stanford University (1932),Ph.D. degree in Psychology from Yale University (1935).Also taught at Cornell university medical college during 1970’s.
lHis productive career involved important studies of a variety of psychological issues.
lTogether with John Dollard, he combined psychoanalytical theory with behaviorism, trying to scientifically explain Freudian ideas of inner drives that motivate and influence human behavior.
lMiller was one of Clark L. Hull’s students. His early work (Dollard and Miller 1950), attempted to apply a Hullian analysis to behavioral issues derived from psychoanalytic literature.Contribution to psychology began with his research on fear as a learned drive.
Later he turned to the study of brain mechanisms in motivation
E.g., that feeding could be elicited by electrical stimulation of the brain in rats was discovered by E.E. Coons in Miller’s lab.
Later, he focused on behavioural medicines, in particular biofeedback, now used widely in a variety of medical conditions including high blood pressure, epilepsy, and migraine.
lIn 1961, when Neal Miller first suggested that the autonomic nervous system could be as susceptible to training as the voluntary nervous system, that people might learn to control their heart rate and bowel contractions just as they learned to walk or play tennis. He was a respected researcher, director of a laboratory at Yale, but this was a kind of scientific work. Everyone ‘knew’ that the autonomic nervous system was precisely that: automatic, beyond our control.
lMiller was eventually able to prove his point, and biofeedback became gradually accepted in scientific circles as a method to help treat high blood pressure, migraines, and other medical conditions.
lThe Academy of Behavioural Medicine Research established the Neal E. Miller New Investigator Award in his honour, and the American Psychological Association established a distinguished lectureship in his name.
Experiment:
At that time it was cleared that the S-R (stimulus-response) is not enough.
E.g when the rats was deprived of food, their running activity increased.
It shows rats must have been responding to some internal influence.
Second it becomes clear that the effects of reinforcement were important, as well as events that precedes it.
If hungry rats ran the correct route in maze and were rewarded with food for doing so, they would learn the maze.
These consideration led researchers to consider drive as motivating factor. Hunger, thirst or sexual deprivation are drives, pain or shocks als producces drives..
lBut then another problem emerges.
lPeople often do things when no biological drives motivate them e.g. writing a book, composing music or more complex motives at work.
lAs miller puts it:
“people are not born with a tendency to strive for money, for the discovery of scientific truths, or for symbols of social status and security. Such motives are learned…. A learnable drive is one that can be acquired by a previously ineffective cue as a result of learning. Thus, if a child that ha s not previously feared dogs learns to fear them after having been bitten, it shows that fear is learnable.”
Stimulus (dog) comes to elicit a response (fear) that it did not elicit a response.
Fear is called learnable because it can be learned as a response to previously neutral cues; it is called drive because it can motivate the learning and performance of new response in the same way as hunger, thirst or other drives.
Miller set out to demonstrate experimentally that fear does in fact have these properties.
Procedure was as follow:
Rats were tested in a box having two compartments one painted black and one with white.
Separated by a door through which rat could run…The floor of box in white compartment consisted metal rods through which mild electric shook could pass to rat feet Initially permitted to explore apparatus freely.No preference for any compartment.Then taught to afraid of white compartment .Each rat was placed in that compartment ,shock was turned on.
Rat was allowed to escape the shock through door into safe black compartment 10 trials for each rat were held.
Now shock was turned off
They were placed in dangerous compartment but they quickly ran to safe compartment.Rat was motivated by fear of that place, produced by having been shocked there before.Now in the next phase of experiment a little wheel was mounted on wall and rat had to unlock the door by turning the wheel.
When first don, rats showed behavioral symptoms of fear such as tensing, crouching and random movements. The acquired drive of fear had an arousing , energizing function just as hunger does.
Eventually the rat would turn the wheel by accident, the door fell open and rat escaped into safe compartment.
As final check, wheel was made inoperative and a lever was fixed there to unlock the door…
Now it can be concluded that fear ha both defining properties of drive state. It energizes behaviour, and it can motivate new learning.
- Tags: fear, Fear as a learnable drive, fear experiment, fear is a learnable drive, learnable drive, neal e miller, neal rat experiment
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Paul Pierre Broca:
►He (June 28, 1824 – July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist, and anthropologist
►He is famous for his work on brain lateralization, and the discovery of the center for speech, named the “Broca area.”
His work revealed that the brains of patients suffering from aphasia contained lesions in a particular part of the cortex, in the left frontal region.
►This was the first anatomical proof of the localization of brain function.
►Broca’s work also contributed to the development of physical anthropology, advancing the science of anthropometry.
►His work involved research on primate brains, and the connection between the anatomical features of the brain and mental capability, particularly intelligence.
Through his work, understanding of brain function and the effects of damage to particular areas was greatly increased.
►As Broca recognized, understanding the functioning of the physical brain contributes to understanding of mental abilities, including the capacity for uniquely human thought and creativity.
►Such knowledge is significant in allowing each individual achieve their potential as a unique human being.
Speech Research :
►Broca is most famous for his discovery of the speech production center of the brain (now known as Broca’s area).
►He arrived at this discovery by studying the brains of aphasic patients (persons with speech and language disorders resulting from brain injuries),
►particularly the brain of his first patient in the Bicêtre Hospital, Leborgne (nicknamed “Tan,” due to his inability to clearly speak any words other than “tan”).
►Broca determined that Tan had a lesion caused by syphilis in the left cerebral hemisphere.
►This lesion was determined to cover the area of the brain important for speech production.
Broca’s area is a region of the brain responsible for speech production
►The importance of Broca’s area in producing language has been recognized since Paul Pierre Broca reported impairments in two patients he encountered.
►They had lost the ability to speak after injury to the posterior inferior frontal gyrus of the brain.
►Since then, the approximate region he identified has become known as Broca’s area, and the deficit in language production as Broca’s aphasia.
Broca’s patients:
►Leborgne was a patient of Paul Pierre Broca. He was unable to produce any words or phrases. The only word he could repetitively produce was ‘tan’. After his death, a lesion was discovered on the surface of the left frontal lobe.
Lelong:
►Lelong was another patient of Paul Pierre Broca. He also exhibited reduced productive speech. He could only say five words, ‘yes,’ ‘no,’ ‘three,’ ‘always,’ and ‘lelo’ (a mispronunciation of his own name). At autopsy, a lesion was also found in the same region of lateral frontal lobe as in Leborgne. These two cases led Broca to believe that speech was localized to this particular area.
Action recognition and production
►Recent experiments have indicated that Broca’s area is involved in various cognitive and perceptual tasks.
► One important contribution of Brodmann’s area 44 is also found in the motor-related processes.
►Observation of meaningful hand shadows resembling moving animals activates frontal language area, demonstrating that Broca’s area indeed plays a role in interpreting action of others.
► An activation of BA 44 was also reported during execution of grasping and manipulation.
- Tags: broca, broca's area, Broca's Experiment (The Speech Center), functions of broca area, paul pierre broca, psychology articles, treatment of broca area, what is broca area?
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Necessary Clinical Information:
1. Times of developmental milestones (i.e., talking, walking)
2. Capacity to communicate with other people
3. Language impairment (expressive, receptive, and articulation).
4. Capacity for human relationships
5. Quality of social interaction
6. Abnormal motor movements (e.g., tics, clumsiness)
7. Hyperactivity, inattention, or poor impulse control
8. Abnormal behaviors (e.g., fire setting, animal cruelty)
9. Enuresis or encopresis
10 Subgroups Of Diagnosis:
1. Mental Retardation
2. Learning Disorders
3. Motor Skills Disorders
4. Communication Disorders
5. Pervasive Developmental Disorders
6. Attention-Deficit Disorders and Disruptive Behavior Disorders
7. Feeding and Eating Disorders of Infancy and Early Childhood
8. Tic Disorders
9. Elimination Disorders
10. Other Disorders of Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence.
Mental Retardation:
1. Mild Mental Retardation (IQ ~ 50 – 70)
2. Moderate Mental Retardation (IQ ~ 35 – 55)
3. Severe Mental Retardation (IQ ~ 20 -3 5)
4. Profound Mental Retardation (IQ ~ below 20)
5. Mental Retardation, Severity Unspecified (untestable by standard tests)
6. Adaptive behavior
Learning Disorders:
1. Reading Disorder
2. Mathematics Disorder
3. Disorder of Written Expression
4. Learning Disorder NOS
Motor Function Disorder:
Characterized by problems in motor coordination, abnormal involuntary movement, and stereotypic movements that interfere with the patient’s usual activities.
Attention Deficit Disorder:
ADHD
Predominantly Inattentive Type
Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
Combined Type
Disruptive Behavior Disorders:
Conduct Disorder (violating rights of others or societal rules and norms)
Oppositional Defiant Disorder (negativistic, hostile, defiant behavior)
Disruptive Behavior Disorder NOS
Eating and Feeding Disorder:
1. Pica (eating nonnutritive substances)
2. Rumination Disorder (regurgitate and rechew food)
3. Feeding Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood (not eating adequately)
4. Encopresis (inappropriately passing feces – > 4 years old)
5. Enuresis (urinating in bed or clothes – > 5 years old)
Others Disorders:
1. Separation Anxiety Disorder (excessive anxiety about separation)
Reactive Attachment Disorder
Pathological care
2. Inhibited type:
○hypervigilant, or ambivalent and contradictory responses to social interactions –
3. Disinhibited type:
○ diffuse, indiscriminate attachments to other people)
Information Exchange Disorder:
1. pervasive developmental disorders
2. Autistic Disorder
3. Rett’s Disorder
4. Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
5.Asperger’s Disorder
6. Pervasive Developmental Disorder NOS)
7. communication disorders (Expressive Language Disorder
8. Mixed Receptive-Expressive Language Disorder
9. Phonological Disorder
10. Stuttering
11. Communication Disorder NOS)
12. Selective Mutism
13. Disorder of Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence NOS
Autistic Disorder:
1. Impairment in social interaction
2. Language delay/impairment
3. Restricted repetitive behavior and interests
4. Aspergers: differential dx by language
Making A Diagnosis:
a. Is the child’s predominant symptom an impairment of learning or intellectual functioning?
b. Is the child’s predominant symptom abnormal motor activity?
c. Is the child’s predominant symptom socially inappropriate or self-injurious behavior?
d. Is the child’s predominant symptom an impairment in the ability to communicate or exchange meaningful information with other people?
- Tags: autistic disorder, child psychology, Childhood disorders, childhood disorders list, children disorder, communication disorders, disorders in childs, eating and feeding disorder, learning disorders, other disorders, psychology articles
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TIMELINE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT”.
- Day 1 – conception takes place.
- 7 days – tiny human implants in mother’s uterus.
- 10 days – mother’s menses stop.
- 18 days – heart begins to beat.
- 21 days – pumps own blood through separate closed circulatory system with own blood type.
- 28 days – eye, ear and respiratory system begin to form.
- 42 days – brain waves recorded, skeleton complete, reflexes present.
- 7 weeks – photo of thumb sucking.
- 8 weeks – all body systems present.
- 9 weeks – squints, swallows, moves tongue, makes fist.
- 11 weeks – spontaneous breathing movements, has fingernails, all body systems working.
- 12 weeks – weighs one ounce.
- 16 weeks – genital organs clearly differentiated, grasps with hands, swims, kicks, turns, somersaults, (still not felt by the mother.)
- 18 weeks – vocal cords work – can cry.
- 20 weeks – has hair on head, weighs one pound, 12 inches long.
- 23 weeks – 15% chance of viability outside of womb if birth premature.*
- 24 weeks – 56% of babies survive premature birth.*
- 25 weeks – 79% of babies survive premature birth.*
(*Source: M. Allen et. al., “The Limits of Viability.” New EnglandJournal
of Medicine.11/25/93: Vol. 329, No. 22, p. 1597.)
Introduction/ Summary:
The duration of pregnancy is divided into three equal segments called trimesters. The first trimester (months 1-3) is essential to the proper development of the infant and encompasses both the ovum and embryonic period of prenatal development. This is when all organs, nerve cells and brain cells develop. This is when most spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) occur. They generally are caused by abnormal development of the fetus and are nature’s way of eliminating a chromosomal abnormality. It is vital that all necessary nutrients be available to the fetus in order to develop properly.
The second trimester (months 4-6) is often referred to as the “Golden trimester”. This is when the mother generally feels the best. Morning sickness and nausea have generally disappeared and the mother is quite comfortable.
The third trimester comprises months 7-9. These are important months for the baby as its organs and body systems mature and prepare to function on their own. The fat accumulated during this time will five the baby a “head start” on life.
The prenatal development is sometimes separated into three development periods. The first period is referred to as the period of the zygote. This stage begins at conception and lasts until the zygote is implanted in the mother’s uterus. It lasts for about 10-14 days. The zygote grows to be about the size of a pinhead. Roots grow from the zygote into the wall of the uterus where they can receive nutrients from the mother’s blood.
The period of the embryo lasts from about 2 weeks to 8 weeks after conception. The embryo is attached to the mother by the umbilical cord (20 inches long) which reaches from the embryo’s stomach to the wall of the uterus. The umbilical cord contains arteries which carry the embryo’s waste products away from the embryo to the mother’s blood system to be purified. It also brings oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood back to the embryo to keep it alive. The umbilical cord is connected to the placenta. The placenta is an organ which serves as a medium for the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and the fetus. Throughout this period, the embryo is inside the amniotic sac (a bag filled with watery substance called amniotic fluid). The fluid will protect the developing baby against bumps, bruises and temperature changes. During this period all of the organs that will be present at birth are formed.
The third development period is called the period of the fetus. This period extends from the end of the second month of pregnancy until birth. During this stage, the developing baby is referred to as a fetus. The body parts, organs and systems which were formed during the embryo period will become much more developed and begin to function. The fetus will begin will begin to resemble a human being and features will increase in clarity.
During the fetal period the baby may increase in length as much as twelve inches.
MONTHLY DEVELOPMENT
Month 2 – The embryo increases in length to about 1 ½ inches. Bones and muscles begin to form. The head grows rapidly at first, accounting for about half of the embryo’s size. The face and neck begin to take on human form. The brain develops very rapidly. Leg and arm buds form and grow the eyes begin converging toward the center of the face. The mouth and nose form. Major organs of the digestive system become differentiated. The heart has been beating for about a month now.
Month 3 – The fetus measures about 3 inches from head to buttocks and weighs about ½ ounce. The fetus has all of its major systems and they are functioning. However, it is still unable to survive independently. No new organs will need to be formed, but the ones that are present will need time to develop and mature. The digestive system is active. The liver and kidneys are functioning. The fetus practices swallowing amniotic fluid, breathing amniotic fluid and its vocal chords are developing. The roof of its mouth comes together and fuses. Taste buds appear, sex organs continue to develop, buds for all temporary teeth are formed and bone formation begins. During this month, arms, legs and fingers begin to make spontaneous movement. The eyelids close and are sealed shut at this time. They will reopen at about 6 months.
Month 4 – The fetus grows to almost 6 inches in length and 4 ounces in weight. The skin is thin, loose and wrinkled and appears red because of underlying blood vessels. The face acquires a human appearance. The body outgrows the head at this time. Hands and feet become well formed and finger closure is possible. The fetal reflexes become more brisk as it begins to stir and move the arms and legs. In males, the testes are in position for later descent into the scrotum and in females, the uterus and vagina are recognizable.
Month 5 – The fetus is now about 12 inches long and weighs about 8 ounces. During this month the mother will probably feel the baby’s movement, called quickening. It is suspended in a quart of amniotic fluid. The development seems so advanced that the skin and digestive organs are not prepared to exist on their own. Also, there is no provision for regulating body temperature. The fetus grows a fine dark body hair called lanugo and collects vernix, which is a waxy coating to cover and protect the skin. The nose and ears begin ossification, the skeleton hardens, and the heartbeat can now be heard. Fingernails and toenails begin to appear and the baby will wake and sleep. Sweat glands are formed and functioning.
Month 6 – The fetus increases in weight and is now between 1 ½ – 2 pounds. The eyelids, which have been fused shut, are now open and completely formed. The eyes look up, down and sideways. Eyebrows and eyelashes are well defined and taste buds appear on the tongue and in the mouth.
Month 7 – The fetus is now about 15 inches long and weighs between 2 ½ – 3 pounds. It can cry weakly and can suck its thumb. The fetus can make a variety of reflex movements: startle, grasp, and swim movements. The cerebral hemispheres cover almost the entire brain.
Month 8 – The fetus will gain 2-3 pounds during this month, which it will need to stay warm following birth. The fingernails reach beyond the fingertips and much of the lanugo is shed. By the end of this month, the fetus will most likely settle into the head down position. However, the baby is capable of changing positions.
Month 9 – The fetus reaches full growth. It measures 14-15 inches from head to buttocks and weighs 6-8 pounds. During this last month, the baby acquires antibodies from its mother which will give it temporary immunity against some diseases. The eyes are normally blue at birth because pigmentation is not normally formed until after a few weeks of exposure to light. Vernix is present over the entire body. The fetus will alternate between periods of activity and periods of quiet. The organs increase their activity, the fetal heart rate increases to rapid rate. Birth usually occurs approximately 280 days after the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period.
- Tags: life span psychology, natal development, natal developmental stages, pre natal development, pre natal development stages, psychology articles, Stages Of Pre Natal Development
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The term “psychology” was first coined in 16th century Germany as a combination of two Greek root words: “psyche” (soul or mind) and “logos” (study). Its original use suggested “the study of the mind”, something as old as the human race itself. In recent centuries this interest in human nature has been honed into a systematic discipline. Today psychology is defined as the science of behaviour and mental processes.
The scope of psychology includes many different fields, distinguished by interest in different psychological processes, different populations, and differeent levels of analysis. Professionals psychologists may be interested in basic research or applied techniques like therapy, or they may study humans or animals. They may focus on either internal or external processes, on changes among individuals or over time, and on the influence of either human nature or specific situations.
Because psychology is a science, all fields of psychology rely on the scientific method. The scientific methold is a way of acquiring knowledge. This particular method emphasizes the study of how real events are experienced through one’s senses, a perspective known asempiricism. Empirical research is research based on the evidence of sensory experience. A scientist conducts empirical observations, records measurements(data) of these events, and makes guesses(hypotheses) about their causes and connections. Many hypotheses about similar sets of events are summarized in theories, which are models or broad explantions of cause-and-effect connections.
In conducting scientific research on behaviour and mental processes, psychologists may study either human or nonhuman subjects. Research can be conducted in the natural settings where the events occur(referred to as the field) or in the laboratory, which is any controlled environment. In laboratory research, psychologists control who the subjects are as well as the conditions they ecounter. In all research, whether human or non human, field or laboratory, psychologists record their observations and formulate hypotherses in order to explain behaviour and mental processes. The goal of psychology is to understand, predict, and control behaviour and mental processes.
Life History;
1. Born in New York City
2. Wealthy family
3. Personal problems
4. Poor relationship with his mother
5. felt abandoned
6. Stuttering
7. began about 7-8 years old
8. got better as got older
9. Cross-eyed
10. surgery made him wall-eyed can’t focus on single object.
11. 1915, BA from Harvard in history
12. 1916, married Josephine Lee Rantoul
13. married 48 years Woman (she died in 1964)
14. 1919, MD from Columbia in medicine
15. Patients from Hell’s Kitchen
16. sword-swallowers
17. prostitutes
18. gangsters
19. drug users
20. “downtown reality” vs “uptown dreams”
21. 1920, MA at Columbia in biology
22. studied chicken embryos
23. Met Christiana Morgan
24. She was 4 years younger and married
25. The Murrays and Morgans became friends
26. 1925, trip to Zurich and met with Carl Jung
27. Met every day for 3 weeks
28. Murray “experienced the unconscious“
29. Decided to focus full time on psychology
30. Began an 40+ year affair with Christina Morgan.
31. 1927, PhD from Cambridge 1937, Director of Harvard Psychological Clinic
included clinicians and non-researchers Erik Erikson and Bertrand Russell.
32. 1938, published Explorations in Personality
33. 1938, introduced Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).
34. Murray and Morgan developed TAT
35. He got the credit, she did the work
36. 1943, he created the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) CIA of its day
Selected people for spy missions.
37. 1947, returned to Harvard
38. Taught part-time and administered the Psychological Clinic Annex part-time Received tenure.
39. Appointed professor of clinical psychology.
40. He was 58 1962, retired at 69 years old 1965, at 72 years old
married Caroline Nina Fish Murray assistant professor of education at Boston U 1988, died at the age of 95.
Principles Of Personology:
1) personality is rooted in brain.
2)tension reduction.
3) individual personality continue to develop over time and constructed of all the events that occurs during the course of that person life.
4)personality change and progress, its not fixated.
5) uniqueness of individual.
Needs:
Murray’s definition of the concept of need:
“A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force . . . in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind . . . but, more frequently (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one of a few commonly effective press [environmental forces]. . .
}Internal state that is less than satisfactory
Need for Food
Basic desire for something
States of tension
Needs are physiochemical forces in the brain
People have different needs
different reactions to same foods, etc
Situations activate needs
Competitive situations activate need for power
Psychological hedonism
Ultimate goal of behavior is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain
Needs can be unconscious processes
implicit motives (inhibited, conflicts)
Needs can be explicit motives
aware of competitiveness
Types Of Needs:
Viscerogenic needs(primary needs PN) involve basic physiological drive = hunger, thirst; needed for survival, important for everyone
Psychogenic needs(secondary needs SN) = achievement; individual differences
Needs are also classified according to their direction like
Positive or adience direction and negative or abience direction
Abasement
To submit passively to external force. To accept injury, blame, criticism, punishment. To surrender. To become resigned to fate. To admit inferiority, error, wrongdoing, or defeat. To confess and atone. To blame, belittle, or mutilate the self. To seek and enjoy pain, punishment, illness, and misfortune.
Achievement
To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate, or organize physical objects, human beings, or ideas. To do this as rapidly and as independently as possible. To overcome obstacles and attain a high standard. To excel oneself. To rival and surpass others. To increase self-regard by the successful exercise of talent.
Aggression
To overcome opposition forcefully. To fight. To revenge an injury. To attack, injure, or kill another. To oppose forcefully or punish another.
Autonomy
To get free, shake off restraint, break out of confinement. To resist coercion and restriction. To avoid or quit activities prescribed by domineering authorities. To be independent and free to act according to impulse. To be unattached, irresponsible. To defy convention.
Defendence
To defend the self against assault, criticism, and blame. To conceal or justify a misdeed, failure, or humiliation. To vindicate the ego.
Deference
To admire and support a superior. To praise, honor, or eulogize. To yield eagerly to the influence of an allied other. To emulate an exemplar. To conform to custom.
Understanding
To ask or answer general questions. To be interested in theory. To speculate, formulate, analyze, and generalize.
Sex
To form and further an erotic relationship. To have sexual intercourse.
Succorance
}To have one’s needs gratified by the sympathetic aid of an allied object. To be nursed, supported, sustained, surrounded, protected, loved, advised, guided, indulged, forgiven, consoled. To remain close to a devoted protector. To always have a supporter.
Rejection
To separate oneself from a negatively cathected object. To exclude, abandon, expel, or remain indifferent to an inferior object. To snub or jilt an object.
Sentience
To seek and enjoy sensuous impressions.
Order
To put things in order. Top achieve cleanliness, arrangement, organization, balance, neatness, tidiness, and precision.
Play
To act for “fun” without further purpose. To like to laugh and make jokes. To seek enjoyable relaxation of stress. To participate in games, sports, dancing, drinking parties, cards.
Nurturance
To give sympathy and gratify the needs of a helpless object: an infant or any object that is weak, disabled, tired, inexperienced, infirm, defeated, humiliated, lonely, dejected, sick, mentally confused. To assist an object in danger. To feed, help, support, console, protect, comfort, nurse, heal.
Harmavoidance
To avoid pain, physical injury, illness, and death. To escape from a dangerous situation. To take precautionary measures.
Infaavoidance
To avoid humiliation. To quit embarrassing situations or to avoid conditions which may lead to belittlement: the scorn, derision, or indifference of others. To refrain from action because of the fear of failure.
Dominance
To control one’s human environment. To influence or direct the behavior of others by suggestion, seduction, persuasion, or command. To dissuade, restrain or prohibit.
Exhibition
To make an impression. To be seen and heard. To excite, amaze, fascinate, entertain, shock, intrigue, amuse, or entice others.
Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949)
- 1. Sullivan asserted children’s friendships can offer important sense of attachment & security
Friendship patterns can offer acceptance, intimacy, & sexual relations in later life
Friendship is critical for self-esteem and confidence in children & adolescence.
Life History:
1. Born – Feb. 21, 1892 in Norwich, New York.
2. The son of a poor farmer – Irish immigrants.
3. He grew up isolated, and was a loner – dropout.
4. Never got married.
5. MD at age 25 from a medical college in Chicago.
6. Psychiatrist at a mental hospital in Maryland.
7. Trained male ward attendants.
8. Innovative treatment of Schizophrenia Suffered from episodes of Schizophrenia himself.
9.Stressed direct and verifiable observation.
10.Headed the Washington School of Psychiatry.
Emphases:
He Characterized loneliness as the most painful of human experiences Personality can only be observed in interpersonal interaction.
A true “situation-person interactionist”. first mention of “significant other” in psychological literature Relationship with 2 important people in life:
1. mother
2. sexual partner
Research:
1. Sullivan was committed to research, mostly social research in a psychiatric setting.His experimental ward for young schizophrenic males. “Like Cures Like” Schizophrenia can be treated.The importance of trust Sullivan’s work on interpersonal relationships became the foundation of Interpersonal Psychoanalysis,A school of psychoanalytic theory and treatment that stresses the detailed exploration of the nuances of patients’ patterns of interacting with others.
Major Concept:
1. Tension in a physical energy system
2. The extremes of tension: euphoria versus absolute terror from great threat to security
3. 2 sources of tension:
a. Needs of the body
b. Anxiety from threatened security à interpersonal anxiety
4. Need for Tenderness = “relief from various tensions”
Self System
A configuration of the personality traits developed in childhood and reinforced by positive affirmation and the security operations developed in childhood to avoid anxiety and threats to self-esteem. OR
A steering mechanism toward a series of I-You interlocking behaviors; that is, what an individual does is meant to elicit a particular reaction.
Part of personality born out of influences of significant others upon one’s feeling of well being.
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Somatotypes – William Sheldon, 1940′s
William Sheldon (1940, 1942,) classified personality according to body type. He called this a person’s somatotype.
Sheldon identified three main somatotypes.
1. Endomorph [viscerotonic]
relaxed, sociable, tolerant, comfort-loving, peaceful
plump, buxom, developed visceral structure
2. Mesomorph [somatotonic]
active, assertive, vigorous, combative
muscular
3. Ectomorph [cerebrotonic]
quiet, fragile, restrained, non-assertive, sensitive
lean, delicate, poor muscles
Ancient Greek philosophers such as Hippocrates 400 BC and Galen, 140/150 AD classified 4 types of “humors” in people. Each type was believed to be due to an excess of one of four bodily fluids, corresponding to their character. The personalities were termed “humors”.
| Character |
Humor |
Fluid |
Corresponding Trait in the Big 5 |
| Irritable |
Choleric |
yellow bile |
Agreeableness |
| Depressed |
Melancholic |
black bile |
Neuroticism |
| Optimistic |
Sanguine |
blood |
Openness to experience |
| Calm |
Phlegmatic |
phlegm |
Neuroticism |
- Tags: ancient humors, ectomorphs.mesomorphs, endomorphs, fluid, greek humors, humor, psychological chracters, psychological somatotypes, psychology articles, sheldon somatotypes, somatotypes, what are somatotypes, william sheldon, william sheldon.william sheldon somatotypes
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